To this day, there is no standardized form of Islamic governance. Even in modern states that declare themselves Islamic, their political systems differ widely. Furthermore, there has never been a universally recognized Islamic state that represents all Muslims globally. Movements aiming to unify the global Muslim community under a single political banner have invariably ended in chaos, confusion, and even warfare.
Consider, for example, the fate of movements like Pan-Islamism led by Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, or more recent efforts such as the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and Hizb ut-Tahrir, including its Indonesian branch, Hizb ut-Tahrir Indonesia (HTI).
The Prophet Muhammad did not establish a religious hierarchy, as seen in the Catholic tradition. This is why his role as the final Messenger cannot be replaced. Instead, the Prophet advised his followers to seek guidance from his companions and scholars. However, Islam has no formal religious hierarchy, meaning no individual or institution holds the final authority on religious matters. For instance, the Indonesian Council of Ulema (MUI) holds a status equal to that of Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and Muhammadiyah. Their religious rulings (fatwas) are opinions, not binding legal decisions.
In Islam, religious leaders—like caliphs, monarchs, sultans, and emirs in governance—have different titles depending on local traditions. They may be known as kiai, sheikhs, scholars (ulema), or imams, but none of these titles carry the weight of being a global religious leader. The history of Islamic jurisprudential schools (mazhab) is a testament to this diversity. Followers of the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali schools of thought adhere to their respective teachings, but none claim universal authority.